Layers of meaning: semantic shifts in the concept of the psyche

The reception of the term nephesh/psyche from the 10th century BCE demonstrates a long-term evolution of meaning: from the experience of life as a bodily process toward increasingly abstract, philosophical, and theological interpretations. In the Hebrew biblical context, nephesh means "living being," "life," "breathing," or "desire" and refers to the whole person, not a separate soul. Although the Septuagint consistently translates nephesh as the Greek psyche, the translation itself did not yet enforce Platonic dualism. A significant shift occurred at the level of reception.

The rabbinic tradition of the Second Temple period already functioned in a strongly Hellenized environment, and some Jewish elites assimilated the categories of Greek philosophy. This is particularly evident in the Sadducee party, who—as evidenced by sources (Flavius Josephus, Acts 23:8) — rejected belief in the resurrection and the existence of immaterial beings. This position corresponds to the reception of Epicurean and Aristotelian elements, which emphasize personal mortality and skepticism toward metaphysics. This means that Greek philosophy influenced not only later Christian theology but also shaped Jewish interpretive debates as early as the first century CE. From an EBBS perspective, this is evidence that the semantic shifts of nephesh/psyche stem not from the text itself but from historical processes of reception and ideology.

The diagram reveals not only chronology but also semantic shifts and reinterpretations resulting from translations, cultural contexts, and philosophical shifts in the biblical concept of the soul. Each layer represents a different understanding of the human being, the soul, and life—from body to consciousness.

נֶפֶשׁ (nefesh) in the Old Testament

Category	Characteristic of usage	Sample references (without quotation)
1. Organism	Nefesh as a living being in the biological sense: life connected with blood, a breathing organism. Often in legal and ritual contexts.	Lev 17:11; Gen 9:4-5; Deut 12:23
2. Animal – a non‑human living being	Nefesh refers to animals as “living beings”. There is no metaphysical distinction between “human soul” and “animal soul”.	Gen 1:20-21, 24; Gen 2:19; Lev 11
3. Something that wants to eat / has biological needs	Nefesh as “appetite”, “hunger”, “desire”, “need”. It highlights the living being in its basic biological functions.	Prov 23:2; Isa 29:8; Deut 12:20
4. Something that dies – life that can be lost	Nefesh as “life” that can be saved or lost; often in narrative and legal contexts (rescue, danger, death).	Josh 2:13; 1 Sam 22:23; Ps 33:19; Job 33:18
5. Person – nefesh as a human individual	Nefesh simply means “a human being”, “a person”, “someone” – a countable unit, often in statistical or legal contexts.	Gen 12:5; Exod 1:5; Lev 7:20
6. “I” / “inner self” – psychological usage	Nefesh as the subject of experiences: desires, emotions, decisions, fear, joy. In the Psalms often functions as the “I” of the one who prays.	Ps 42:6; Ps 103:1; Job 10:1
7. Metaphorical / moral usage (e.g., Ps 11:5)	Nefesh as “inclination”, “delight”, “inner stance”, “moral preference”. In Ps 11:5 God’s nefesh abhors violence – an image of moral stance rather than “emotion” in a purely human sense.	Ps 11:5; Prov 21:10; other places where nefesh carries moral desires

The semantic range of נֶפֶשׁ (nefesh) is broad and non‑philosophical: it covers biological life, the living being as a whole, needs, emotions, personal identity, and moral stances. In contrast to later dualistic concepts, nefesh does not denote an “immortal soul” separated from the body, but rather the “living being” and its dynamic functions.

*All photos used in this publication are in the public domain.